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Arunachal Pradesh is a must visit destination and it is the largest state in Northeast. This place is blessed with various attractions, wildlife and spiritual shrines along with many tribes. Although Arunachal has 26 major tribes, there are more than 100 sub-tribes.
Arunachal Pradesh is the home of 26 major tribes such as Adi, Aka, Apatani, Bangni, Bugun, Hill Miri, Khamba, Khamiyang, Khampti, Lisu, Memba, Miji, Mikir, Mishing, Mishmi, Monpa, Na, Nishi, Nocte, Sherdukpen, Singpho, Sulung, Tagin, Tangsa, Wancho and Zakhring.
Tourism in Arunachal Pradesh will guide you to learn about the tribes like Adis, Apatanis, Buguns, Hrusso, Singphos, Mishmis, Monpas, Nyishi, Sherdukpens, Tagins, Khamtis, Wanchos, Noctes, Yobin and Khambas and Membas.
They are the principal tribes that are spread in the huge state of Arunachal Pradesh. The tribal’s are a skilful people and are a specialist in making baskets, weaving, smithy work, pottery, wood carving, painting and more. In fact, the women play a major role in such art works while the men work in the field. With each tribes being distinct from each other, there are few features of the principle tribes of Arunachal as well.
Beautifully ensconced in a quaint corner of India’s vast and wonderful geographical map, far away from the madding crowd and the hustle and bustle of city life, lies the picturesque state of Arunachal Pradesh.
In the North-east of India, among lush scenic beauty and fiercely proud native tribes. Situated against a majestic Himalayan backdrop, with soaring waterfalls and pictorial lakes, this “Land of the Rising Sun” as it is popularly called, is known for its ancient culture and finds mention in prominent scriptures of India, such as the Mahabharata and Kalika Purana.
Sage Parashurama washed away his sins in Arunachal, then known as the Prabhu Mountains. The famous sage Vyasa meditated in the forests of this region and Lord Krishna is believed to have married Rukmini at this legendary site in India.
Sprawling over an area of 83,743 sq kms, the state of Arunachal Pradesh, with its capital at Itanagar, plays host to 26 major tribes and numerous sub-tribes, over 100 approximately, living in its 3,649 scattered villages. Although a number of tribal groups constitute the total population, the density of people living in any given area, is far from crowded. In fact it is definitely on the sparser side. While the people are of Mongoloid stock, each tribe has certain distinct characteristics of language, dress and costume. Quite content with their rich cultural heritage, the Arunachali tribals are simple, friendly and hospitable folk. And their host of colourful festivals are vibrant manifestations of their devout faith and belief.
While each tribe follows its own exclusive traditions and customs, the entire population of the state can be divided into three cultural groups, based on their socio-political lineage.
The first group is made up of the Monpas and Sherdupens of Tawang and West Kameng districts – they are the followers of the Lamaistic tradition of Mahayana Buddhism. The second group comprises of the Adis, Akas, Apatanis, Bangnis, Mijis, Mishmis, Nishis and Thongsas – these people are the worshippers of the sun and moon Gods. The third group, which comprises of the Octes and Wanchos tribal communities of the Tirap district – they follow the basic tenets of Vaishnavism and maintain a strict village society, which is ruled by a hereditary chief.
The ‘Adis’ tribe is democratic and organized tribal people and the women are known for their very good weaving skills. The ‘Apatanis’ tribe are a settled agriculturist and are good cultivators of both wet and terrace cultivation. The ‘Buguns’ and ‘Monpas’ are a gentle and hospitable tribe. ‘Hrusso’ tribe are mainly focused in the trading of clothing and various items. The ‘Singphos’ tribe are an expert blacksmiths and good weavers. ‘Mishmi’ tribes are good in agriculture and are also good in trade. The ‘Nyishi’ are a large tribe inhabiting the major part of Lower Subansiri district, the ‘Tagins’ inhabitant Upper Sunansiri district and the ‘Sherdukpens’ are a small tribe of Arunachal Pradesh. You must plan a tribal tour to Arunachal Pradesh and witness the distinct skills and speciality of these tribes of India.
Wanchos The Wanchos (also spelt as Vonchos), inhabit the southwestern part of the Tirap district, bordering Nagaland. They are known for their fondness for wearing decorative headgear and heavy strings of beads on the neck, arms, legs and ears. Basically hardy people, they are known for their strictly structured village society in which the hereditary village chief plays a vital role.
Noctes The tribes comprising the Noctes, who inhabit the central part of the Tirap district, to the north of the Wanchos, have a long standing and traditional contact with the people of the neighbouring plains. They practice an elementary form of Vaishnavism.
Tangsas This is a common name given to a group of people consisting of the Lungchang, Moklong, Yugli, Lungri, Have, Moshong, Rundra, Takhak, Ponthi and Longphi tribes. Each group is subdivided into a number of exogamous clans. These tribes occupy the second most populous district of Arunachal Pradesh – the 4,662 sq kms Changlang district with its rich wildlife and flora and fauna along the Indo-Myanmar front.
Singphos The Singphos, who are expert blacksmiths turning out high quality iron implements, live on the banks of the Teang and Noa Diking rivers and extend towards the south-east into the land of the Khamptis. This gifted tribe, where the ladies are also deft weavers, are followers of Buddhism.
Khamptis The Khamptis live to the south of the Lohit district along the Kamlang, Dehing and Tengapani rivers with the Parasuramkund to the north-east and Tirap district of the south. The people of this tribe possess south-east Asian features and are devout followers of Theravada Buddhism. An essentially peace loving people, their houses have a separate prayer room and they pray every morning and evening by offering flowers (nam taw yongli) and food (khao tang som). The Khamptis are good craftsmen, enterprising traders and skilful agriculturists.
Mishmis The Mishmi or Deng people of Tibet and Arunachal Pradesh are an ethnic group comprising mainly of three tribes, namely the Idu Mishmi (Idu Lhoba), Digaro tribe (Tarao Darang Deng) and Miju Mishmi (Kaman Deng). Skilled agriculturists and successful traders, the Mishmis occupy the north-eastern tip of Central Arunachal Pradesh in upper and lower Dibang Valley, Lohit and Anjaw districts. It is interesting to note that the three sub-divisions of the tribe emerged due to their geographical distribution, but racially all the three groups are essentially of the same stock. The Idus, also known as “Chulikatas” by the plains people, are primarily concentrated in the upper Dibang valley and lower Dibang valley district and parts of the northern part of the Lohit district of Arunachal Pradesh. With approximately 25,000 members, the Idu tribe is divided into sections, interestingly each named after the river by the side of which they live.
The Mijis or Kamans, who number less than the Idus, are approximately 18,000 in number and inhabit the Lohit district, east of the Taraons. Unlike the Idus, they wear their hair long and their dress is both colourful and extremely durable. Agriculture forms one of the main occupations of these tribal people, as it does of the Digarus, who also call themselves as Taraon.
Adis The Adis, who comprise one of the populous groups of indigenous peoples in the distant north-eastern state of Arunachal Pradesh, are believed to have come from China in the 16th century. Inhabiting the temperate and subtropical regions within the districts of east Siang, upper Siang, west Siang, lower Dibang valley, Lohit and Namsai in this picturesque state, they are also found in certain areas of the Tibet Autonomous Region of China, where they are called Lhobas.
The Adis have different sub-tribes, which differ from each other in many ways and customs. About 500 of the Adi tribe come from a fascinating tribal village called the Adi Pasi. En route to Adi Pasi, you can see the ingeniously crafted cane and bamboo hanging bridge on the Siang river. Two hundred to two hundred and fifty feet long, it connects to the other hill tribes. The people in this remote village necessarily have to be highly self sufficient and villagers
cook fish and rats for dinner. Fishing is a necessary activity here and rats are considered a local delicacy.
Consisting of approximately 2,50,000 Adis in Arunachal Pradesh, the people are skilled in making beautiful cane and bamboo items. Democratic by nature and possessing a unique sense of history, they have well organised village councils called ‘Kebang’. The traditional village Panchayat or Council, which is a judicio-administrative body, is composed of mature and influential elders. It looks after the administration of justice in the society by settling all matters of dispute.
Divided into three main groups called the Galos, Padams and Miwongs, each of which can again be divided into a number of sub-groups, the Adis are exogamous and dances form a vital element of Adi culture. Performed to express joy and zest for life or joie de vivre as the French would put it, the traditional Ponung dance is famous throughout the state of Arunachal Pradesh. Dances are performed on important rituals, during festivals and occasionally also for recreation. They vary from highly stylised religious dancedramas of the Buddhists to the martial steps and colourful performances of the Noctes and Wanchos. Whereas Popir is the indigenous dance of the Adis.
The Galos weave clothes of highly artistic designs , one of the finest being a beautiful skirt with a central pattern of black yarn netted in regular designs of black and white. Whereas the Hill Miris, inhabiting the lower Kamla valley, look attractive in their costumes. They tie their hair in a knot just above the forehead. Their women wear attractive”crinoline of cane rings”, which serve the purpose of a blouse but now no longer seen in urban areas.
Apatamis The Apatamis, also known as Apa Tanis, are an amazing group of tribals living in the picturesque Ziro valley in the Lower Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh. This small enterprising group of people is among very few tribes in the world that still worship Nature – the sun and moon Gods to be exact.
They are famous for their unique methods of sustainable farming and social forestry and have beaten modern technological advancements with ease, in terms of environmental conservation. Their wet rice cultivation and ingenious agricultural system are extensive and highly effective even without the use of any farm animals or machines. UNESCO has proposed the Apatani valley for inclusion as a World Heritage Site for its “extremely high productivity” and unique way of preserving the ecology.
They reside in crowded villages called “bastis”, grow paddy and millet in abundance and practise pisciculture with confidence. Their farms, which are on flat lands, are uniquely marked with efficient channels and canals for irrigation purposes. It may be noted that, over the centuries the Apatamis have specialized in harvesting two crops of fish, along with each crop of paddy. The extremely eastern location of their habitat resulting in early sunsets, when the family heads home, also invites people to homes where they are served the traditional homemade rice beer with special Apatani salt called tapyo. Traditionally tapyo is made at home using ashes of certain indigenous plants and is largely instrumental in saving these tribals from the worrisome ailment of goitre, which is otherwise a major concern in nearby tribes.
Nyishis The Nyishis, with the men wearing startling hornbill head dresses and the local population practising both Christianity and Animism, speak the traditional Nishi language. Nyi refers to ‘a man’ and the word shi denotes ‘a being’, which combined, together refers to a human being. One of the largest ethnic groups in Arunachal Pradesh,
they are spread across seven districts of this north-eastern state namely Kra Daadi, Kurung Kumey, East Kameng, West Kameng, Papum Pare and parts of lower Subansiri and Kamle district. They also reside in the Sonitpur and North Lakhimpur districts of Assam.
Polygamy is prevalent among the Nyishi tribals and signifies both one’s social status and economic stability and also proves handy during tough times like clan wars or social huntings and various other social activities. They follow the patrilineal system and are divided into several exogamous clans. The Nyishi men keep their hair long and tie it in a knot just above the forehead and wear cane bands around their waist as a part of their traditional dress.
Hrussos The Hrussos are commonly called Akas, which means ‘painted’ for they have a custom of painting their faces with black marks. With a small population of less than 10,000 people, the tribals belonging to this community are found in the Thrizino (cultural hub), Bhalukpong (commercial hub), Buragon, Jamiri, Palizi and Khuppi area in West Kameng in Arunachal Pradesh. They have featured frequently in old historical records, their language belongs to the Tibeto-Burman family and like most tribes, they have an elementary caste system, the aristocratic Kutsun and the commoner Kevatsum.
Polygamy is widely practised in this patrilineal society, cross-cousin marriages are accepted and an elected chief dispenses the responsibilities of administration as village headman. Living in elongated houses made of bamboo, wood and cane leaves, they practice shifting cultivation and rear domestic animals such as the Mithun.
Khowas or Buguns The people of this tribe, numbering a mere 3,000 or so, comprise one of the earliest recognized scheduled tribes of India. They occupy 7 villages in Teilga and Bichum valley in the neighbourhood of the Sherdukpens. Living in several exogamous clans, the Buguns or Khowas, traditionally their predominant occupation was agriculture, supported by numerous other allied activities such as fishing and hunting, cattle rearing etc. They rear domestic animals such as horse,cow, sheep, goat, pig and hunt wild animals using simple spears, traps, bows and arrows, to enrich their diet. These tribals possess their own folklores,songs, dances, music and rituals. While both sexes adorn themselves generously with silver ornaments, the men wear a very long white garment and a very high hat resembling a Turkish Fez. The women sport a skull cap, sometimes decorated with beautiful patterns. Traditionally followers of the animistic religion, later Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism also impacted upon the people. Pham-Kho is a popular harvesting festival amongst them.
Puroiks or Sulungs The Puroiks are a tribe of the hill-tracts of Arunachal Pradesh. Speaking the Puroik language, they are found in an estimated 53 villages in the districts of Subansiri and upper Subansiri, Papumpare, Kurung Kumey and East Kameng along the upper reaches of the Par river. Claiming kinship with the Bugun, they are at a transitional stage between the hunter gatherer lifestyle and agriculturism.
Sherdukpens The Sherdukpen tribals, who are an ethnic group related to both the Aka and Monpa tribes, speak the Sherdukpen language, Tsangla and Assamese. Although they adopted the Geluga sect of Buddhism in the 17th century, as with their northern neighbours the Monpas,they were subjected to the evalengical influence of Mera Lama, they are more inclined to following pre-Buddhist animistic traditions.
The 4,000 odd Sherdukpens are centred mainly in west Kameng in the villages of Rupa, Jigaon, Thongri, Shergaon
in Bomdila. They are divided into two classes the Thongs and the Chao. While they practice monogamy, marriage between castes are considered taboo. The men wear a unique gurdam skull-cap made from yak’s hair with tassels jutting down over the face and warriors carry a Tibetan sword supported by a waistband. The women sport a full sleeved embroidered jacket and waist cloth known as mushaik, over the cloak. Good agriculturists and traders, with women as artistic weavers, they have competent selfgoverning institutions called “Jongs”.
Monpas There are also the gentle and cultured Monpas of West Kameng districts, who received Buddhism from Padma Sambhava. One of the major ethnic groups of Arunachal Pradesh, they are believed to be the only nomadic tribe of the north-east, being totally dependent on animals like the yak, sheep, cow, goats and horses and had no permanent settlement or attachment to any place. Known for their skills in thangka painting, wood-carving, carpet making and bamboo weaving and they speak various related languages. The principal Monpa festivals include the Choskar harvest festival, during which the Buddhist lamas read religious scriptures at the Gompas; Torgya and Losar festival during which, people fervently offer prayers at the Tawang monastery for the coming of Tibetan New Year. Pantomime dances are the principal feature of the Ajilamu festival.
So the fascinating wheel of tribal life continues to turn, slowly, inexorably, dominated by myths and fiction, bearing the stamp of tribal creativity and imagination, sustained by earnest human endeavour and pride.
ARUNACHAL: THE LAND OF COLOURFUL TRIBES AND DIVERSE CULTURE There are 26 major tribes and more than 100 sub-tribes in Arunachal Pradesh with its own different traditions and customs. A group of the population such as the Monpas and Sherdukpens in West Kameng and Tawang districts of Arunachal Pradesh follow Mahayana sect of Buddhism. Their worship centre is known as Gompa (Buddhist Monastery). Membas and Khambas are also followers of Mahayana Buddhism. On the other hand tribes like Khamptis and Singphos follow Hinayana sect of Buddhism. The second group consists of tribes like Adis, Galos, Apatanis, Nyishis, Mishmis etc. are the worshipers of the Sun and the Moon God namely Donyi-Polo. They believe in one common ancestor known as Abo-Tani. Third group comprises of Noctes, Wangchos, Tangsas etc. of Tirap, Longding & Changlang Districts. The elementary form of Vaishnavism is practiced by the Noctes.
The state of Arunachal Pradesh lies in the extreme north eastern corner of India. The state is home to numerous tribes who exhibit their unique culture and tradition. Arunachal Pradesh was earlier known as North East Frontier Agency (NEFA) and attained the status of a Union Territory on 20th January, 1972 and was renamed Arunachal Pradesh. The state achieved full-fledged statehood on 20th February, 1987 and became the 24th state of India. At present Arunachal Pradesh consists of seventeen districts viz. Changlang, Tirap, Papum Pare, Upper Dibang Valley, Lower Dibang valley, Tawang, East Kameng, West Kameng, East Siang, West Siang, Upper Siang, Krung Krungmey, Lohit, Anjaw, Lower Subansiri, Upper Subansiri and Longding which was curved out of Tirap district in 2012. Itanagar, the capital of Arunachal Pradesh located in Papum Pare district is a place of historical importance and Ita fort in Itanagar testify it. Arunachal Pradesh has been a part of the cultural system that developed in the Brahmaputra valley. The ruins of Bhishmak site in the Dibang Valley and Parashuram Kunda in Lohit District testify the Hindu influences whereas the Ita fort at Itanagar was built by the Ahoms during the 13th and 14th centuries. Assamese language has also served as the lingua franca among the different tribes.
prominent tribes of arunachal pradesh
According to Verrier Elwin, “The word ‘Adi’ covers a large number of tribal groups, united by a language that in spite of all dialectical variations is fundamentally everywhere the same, and by a similar culture and temperament”. (Elwin 1959: 18) The People of India project carried out by the Anthropological Survey of India also records fifteen Adi communities in its report- Ashing, Bori, Karko, Milang, Padam, Pangi, Ramo, Tangam, Bokar, Gallong, Komkar, Minyoung, Pailibo, Pasi and Shimong. Each of these communities exists with their unique style of living, social customs, culture and belief system, yet there are many things which are common to all the tribes- they have a common dialect, they claim a common origin and celebrate common festival. The word Adi means ‘hill men’. Earlier the Adis were known as ‘Abor’, “a rather derogatory word meaning ‘unruly’ or ‘disobedient’ which correctly described the idea which the plains people had of them in the past”. (Elwin 1959: 17) Today they are known as Adis as Verrier Elwin says, “They themselves have suggested and the administration has accepted, that they should be called Adis or hill men”. (Elwin 1959: 18) The Adis are concentrated in the East Siang and West Siang districts of Arunachal Pradesh. The Linguistic Survey of India includes Adi language in the North Assam group of Tibeto-Burman branch of Sino-Tibetan family. It does not have a script of its own. (Singh 1995: 53) In the absence of script the Adis do not have written history and it is compensated by the oral traditions that have existed among the people transmitted from generation to generation. The oral traditions of the Adis, says Dr. D. Pandey, “are reflected in Abangs, Ponungs, Abes etc. The oral religious literature of the Adis is mainly represented by rhapsodies known as Abangs, relating to the myths of creation, origin of social institutions and the history of the people. The Ponungs are nothing but legendary ballads, drawing their 47 themes from Abangs, highlighting the origin of different things including the Adi race itself. The Abes may be considered as political literature of the people and the term is used to mean the introductory speeches given by the Kebang Abu in Kebang. An elderly person gifted with the powers of good oratory is called the Kebang Abu, who traces the origin and migration of the people of the central zone of Arunachal from Uli, Usha and Kumting in Tibet in a poetic language.” (Pandey 2009: 37) The Adi villages are situated near the rivers. They also prefer the hill tops as secured place of habitation. They use bamboo, thatch and wood to build their houses. The Adis build their houses with a raised floor. The main part of the house is a big hall with the fire place in the middle portion and it comprises specific places for sleeping, sitting, cooking, preparing apong etc. They gather their food by hunting, fishing and cultivating. The economic life of the Adis mainly centers round agriculture and they traditionally practise jhum or shifting cultivation. However Terrace rice cultivation (TRC) and Wet rice cultivation (WRC) is also practised. Like agriculture fishing in the river is also an important part of the economy and pastime of the Adis and the areas for fishing are well demarcated. Every village has its own hunting grounds and fishing areas. The Adis live an organized social life under the village council called Kebang. The smallest unit of their social organization is the family where the father is the head. The Adis follow monogamy in marriage. Another important feature of the Adi society is the dormitory system. They have two types of dormitory- Mushup for the boys and Rasheng for the girls. The Adis celebrate a number of festivals which reflect their cultural heritage. The main festivals of the Adis are Solung, Etor and Aran. Feasts, offerings, songs and dances characterize these festivals. The popular dances of the Adis are Ponung, Delong, and Yakjong. The Adi men excel in cane and bamboo works. They make baskets, mats, hats and headgear for domestic use. The women folk are also expert weaver.
The Akas are a community inhabiting the West Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh. The Akas prefer the name Hrusso, which they claim to be their original name. The community came to be known as Aka because of their custom of painting the faces of the female members. The word ‘aka’ in Assamese means painted. The prevalent belief among the people is that they migrated to their present habitat from a place known as Zega (Lankapur), somewhere in upper Assam. According to a mythological belief, Buslo Aou was the Akas’ ancestor and they claim their origin to be now (earth) and nyarji (sky). The sky was regarded as the husband, the earth as wife and their offspring as Akas. (Ahmed 1995: 135) The Akas are divided into three sub-groups: Hrusso, Miri and Hushhin with a number of clans and sub-clans. There is no hierarchy maintained among the sub-groups of Aka. However slavery existed among them and they used to keep Sulung people as their slave. The Akas are an agriculturalist community and they traditionally practise Jhum cultivation. Some of them have adopted terrace and wet rice cultivation also. The main crops are maize, millet, paddy and different pulses. Aarah and Laopani are their popular drink made from fermented maize and millet. The Akas are also fond of hunting and fishing. Animal husbandry, pottery, carpentry, basketry and weaving are the subsidiary occupations of the Akas. The Aka society is patrilineal and patrilocal. Monogamy is the general rule of marriage but polygamy also exists. Bride price is an important part of marriage. The Akas have a number of pre and post delivery rituals. Tying of fokki (ancestral thread) on the child’s right hand is an important ceremony associated with birth. They celebrate birth with feast. They Akas bury their corpses and the burial takes place on the same day. They have separate burial place for those who die an accidental death. 49 The traditional village council of the Akas is responsible for maintaining low and order in the village. The village council is known as melley. It settles land disputes, thefts, elopement, adultery and divorce and has the authority to impose fine on the offender both in cash and kind. The Akas have deep faith in malevolent and benevolent deities and spirits and the sky, mountain, earth water etc. They call their religion Nyezi-No which means worship of the sky and the earth. They try to appease the spirits by sacrificing animals in order to ward off the danger of natural calamities and disease. Every Aka village has a psegha (sacred place) used for worshipping as well as holding village council meetings. The Akas celebrate a number of festivals both at individual and community level. Nechido, Sorok and Opatsau are some of the important festivals of Akas. Nechido is celebrated for four days where a number of animals are sacrificed for well being of the community and good harvest. Songs, dances, feasts and local liquor forms an integral part of the celebrations. An Aka man wears a small garment hanging below the shoulders and covering the upper part of the body called oposhiu-gu. They also wear a long coat called polu hanging from shoulders to the knees. The garment worn by an Aka woman is also called polu which hangs from the shoulder up to the ankle. A polu worn by the women are usually red in colour. The women also wear silver and stone ornaments. They also tattoo their face.
The Apatanis are one of the major tribes of Arunachal Pradesh concentrated in the Apatani valley, at Ziro and Hapoli, in the Lower Subansiri district. The Apatanis use Apatani language and Devnagari and Roman script for written communication. They believe their community descended from the mythical father Abo Tani. The Apatani men can be identified by the long hair tied into a knot projected on the forehead. They also tattoo their face. The 50 Apatani women can be identified with the yapinghules (wooden nose plugs) worn on both nostrils. The Apatanis are divided into 2 endogamous groups- Mith and Mora. The Miths enjoy a higher social position then the Mora. Community endogamy, Mith Mora endogamy and clan exogamy are the rules of marriage. Bride price is not compulsory among the Apatanis. Although monogamy is the norm, polygamy is also permitted. The Apatani village is not a conglomeration of houses, but reveals a definite pattern of arrangement. Each village is divided into separate quarters occupied by a specific clan. Within the village, social life and activities move around two focal points namely nago (a small ritual house) and lapong (the public platform). (Dutta 2012: 32) The Apatanis are settled cultivators. They produce rice, millet, maize, pulses etc. They are non vegetarian and take beef, pork and meat of mithun. They prepare an alcoholic drink oo from maize, millet and rice. The traditional village council of the Apatanis is known as buliang. It consists of the clan representatives. During the Mloko and Morom festivals, a special share of meat is distributed to the members of buliang. The system of slavery also existed among the Apatanis. Being settled cultivators they engaged the slaves in their fields. The Apatani women are expert weavers. They are also expert in pottery. The Apatanis observe rituals at the time of birth and death. When a child is born, the priest chants prayers as they believe ui (spirit) decides the fate of the child. The parents of the newborn are not allowed to go out for a period of 10 days. The Apatanis bury their corpses. In case of death, the family of the deceased observes a pollution period of 10 days. 51 The Apatanis profess Doyni Poloism as their religion. However they worship a number of spirits and deities, who they believe have an influence on the life of human beings. The nyibu is the priest of the Apatanis who chant prayers for good harvest or recovery from illness. The major festivals of the Apatanis are Mloko, Morom and Dree. Mloko and Dree are community festivals having agricultural and religious significance, while Morom is a family festival.
The Apatanis, whose society I seek to study are said to belong to the Indo-Mongoloid racial stock and linguistically to the Tibeto-Burman family. They trace their descent from one legendary ancestor called Abotani. The Apatanis inhabit an area known as Ziro Valley of roughly 32 sq.km.Thevalley is sequestered by the hills and ranges in all directions and a small river, locally known as Kiile flows through the valley from the north to south. The river along with its tributaries supplies sufficient water for the wet-rice cultivation practiced by the community. Their oral traditions allude to their migration to this magnificent valley from the northern direction, from an earlier habitation from beyond the Kuru and Kime rivers.
The Bangnis were earlier known as Dafla but now they prefer to be called Bangni as they consider the name Dafla derogatory. The Bangnis inhabit in the Seppa circle of the East Kameng district. (Like the Nishis, the Bangnis also believe themselves to be the descendents of mythical father Abo Tani.) The Bangnis can be easily recognized by their hairstyle- they tie their hair in a bun over the forehead which they call padam The Bangnis are recognized as scheduled tribe. They use Bangni dialect and also broken Assamese and Hindi. The Bangnis are non vegetarian and they take beef and pork. Rice and maize are their main Food. They also take green and leafy vegetables along with rice. Inya (local liquor) is an important part of the diet of the Bangnis and they serve it to entertain their guests. The community is divided into a number of exogamous clans. Some of them are Mosong, Rangpho, Longda, Takar Nongda, Niying, Tanya, Gymdi, Ejo and Sadda. There is no clan hierarchy. (Dhar 1995: 147) The Bangnis follow community endogamy and clan exogamy. Adult marriage is the norm and marriage is fixed by negotiating the bride price. The bride price consists of mithun, costly beads, endi (silk cloth) etc. The residence after marriage is patrilocal. The Bangni woman does the household work, rears children and also goes to work in the field. They also weave in their indigenous looms. 52 The traditional village council of the Bangnis is called gtyokum which consists of the village headman and a council of elders. It settles the disputes in the village and also has the power to impose fine on offenders. The Bangnis bury their dead. A fowl is cut and buried with the dead body. The rope used by the deceased man to tie his mithuns is also buried. No help is sought from the nyibu (priest) in connection with burial. (Dhar 1995:149) The Bangnis believe in the existence of spirits. They worship benevolent and malevolent spirits. Nyokum is their community festival associated with agriculture and fertility. Folk tales, folk song and dance form the very essence of the culture of the Bangnis.
The Bugun community, earlier known as Khowa is found on the mountains on both sides of Rupa river in the West Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh. They speak Bugun language among themselves. The men folk wear Monpa type of jackets while the women wear a white piece of cloth covering from neck to ankle. Long hair is kept by the members of both the sexes of Bugun Tribe. They also adorn themselves with silver ornaments. The Bugun community is divided into several exogamous clans- Lakiang, Chitam, Chitun, Khnam, Murphuing, Bodoi and Jeri (Dhar 1995: 185). In marriages they follow community endogamy and clan exogamy. The practice of payment of bride price exists in marriage and monogamy is the general rule. The Bugun women do all the household work, collect firewood, prepare food and work in the field. They enjoy an equal status with their men in the sense that they are allowed to take part in the indigenous village council. (Dhar 1995: 186) 53 The Buguns name their children immediately after birth as they believe that otherwise the child will come under the spell of the evil spirit. The Buguns bury their dead. At the time of burial they also put all the articles used by the dead man along with the corpse and keep water and food in the grave. The Buguns are agricultural people and they practise shifting cultivation. Rice, millet, maize potato etc are their main products. Rice is their staple food. The Buguns are non vegetarian and they eat meat and fish. They also rear domesticated animals like pigs, cow, horse, pig, sheep, goat, and mithun. The traditional village council of the Buguns is Than-ni-miang. Members from all the clan are represented in this council and even women have got a right to participate in the council’s activities and if the situation demands they can also represent their clan. (Dhar 1995: 187) The council settles disputes and fines the offenders. The Buguns follow traditional tribal religion and the phabi (village priest) plays an important role in all religious functions. Chat-soi is the most important festival of the Buguns celebrated during December-January. Again Sabo festival is celebrated to increase the fertility of land and a good harvest.
The Hill Miris live in the Lower Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh. They build their houses on the slopes of hills which gives them a natural protection. The houses are located very close to each other while the granaries are built at a distance to protect it from fire breakout. The Hill Miris speak Hill Miri dialect which belongs to the Adi group of dialects. They do not have a script. The Hill Miris are recognized as a scheduled tribe in Arunachal Pradesh. 54 The Hill Miris are non vegetarian people. They eat pork, beef, mutton and meats of bears, monkey, tiger, rats, birds and fowls. Rice is their staple food. Their diet includes rice, different locally grown vegetables, meat, fish and apo (local liquor). The Hill Miris are divided into exogamous clans. In marriages they follow clan exogamy and community endogamy with exceptions in the case of Nishis and Gallongs (Das 1995: 162). The residence after marriage is patrilocal. The Hill Miris negotiate their marriage and the payment of bride price in marriage is compulsory. When a child is born the mother and the baby stays away from others for five to six days. The priest selects a name for the baby. The Hill Miris bury their corpses. When death occurs the priest examines chicken liver and egg before carrying the body to the burial site. They believe in life after death and so they put all the belongings of the deceased person and even food and liquor inside the grave. The family of the dead man observes a pollution period of 10 days. The main economic resources of the Hill Miris are land water and forests. While agriculture is their primary occupation, they also go for fishing and hunting to gather food. The Hill Miri women work in the field, collect fuel and fodder apart from looking after the household and rearing children. They are also good weavers. The religion of the Hill Miris is a mixture of worshipping Doyni-Polo (the Sun Moon God) and the propitiation of different spirits. They believe in the existence of spirits that exert influence on their lives and therefore try to propitiate them through prayers. Divination of chicken liver and egg is an essential part of the belief system of the Hill Miris and they do it for curing diseases, selecting marriage couples and even for a good harvest. Buri is the most important festival of the Hill Miris in which they propitiate a number of spirits. The images 55 of these spirits are constructed out of bamboo, cane and leaves and the priests pray for general welfare of the community as a whole and for a good harvest.
The Khambas are a Buddhist community distributed in the Upper Siang and West Siang districts of Arunachal Pradesh. The community consists of a number of subgroups like Kham-Jarten, Chungpho, Kham-Traya, Popa, Kham-Konjo and Kham-Jarten. The Khambas speak Khamba Khaadi language which is a dialectical variation of Tibetan language. They use Hingra and Hikor script. The Khambas can be identified with their dress. The traditional dress of the Khamba is called boko which is full sleeved for men and half sleeved for women. They are recognized scheduled tribe. The Khambas are non-vegetarian. They eat the meat of mithun, pork and beef. Rice is their staple food. Along with rice they also take millet, local pulses varieties locally produced vegetables. Raksi is their local liquor. They also use milk and milk products. The Khambas build their houses on the top of the hills while the slopes are used for Jhum cultivation. Their houses are built on a raised platform. The Khambas maintain community endogamy and sub-group exogamy in marriages. Marriages are generally settled through negotiations. The girl comes to live in her husband’s house after marriage. Apart from the household works, a Khamba woman collects fuel and fodder and also clears the jungle for Jhum cultivation. They are great weavers and expert in weaving carpets. The dragon motif is popularly used by the Khamba women in weaving carpets. The Khamba men are also expert in carpentry and they make different items of cane and bamboo for their daily use. Agriculture is their main occupation, while animal husbandry is a subsidiary one. They rear cow, mithun, pig etc. 56 The traditional village council of the Khambas is thrimtamji. The council settles disputes related to theft, marriage, land ownership etc. The Khambas are the follower of Mahayana sect of Buddhism. Each village has a gompa controlled by a lama. The lama is essential in observance of birth and death rites and marriage ceremonies. The lama also propitiates the deities for the health and overall wellbeing of the people. The Khambas celebrate a number of festivals. Cungripa Losar and Tombo Losar are festivals associated with agriculture. Oral traditions, folktales and lullabies form an integral part of Khamba culture. Folk songs and dances are performed during festivals with great enthusiasm. The Khambas also perform pantomime during Drubachuk and Trinda Chichuk festivals.
The Khamiyangs are a small Buddhist community of Arunachal Pradesh settled mostly in Lohit and Changlang districts. They have a close affinity to the Khampti tribe of Arunachal Pradesh and the Tai-Phakes of Assam. They are also called Khamjang or Shyam by other people. The Khamiyangs believe that originally they belonged to ‘the land where gold is easily available’. The word Khamiyang is derived from two Tai words- ‘Kham’ meaning ‘gold’ and ‘Yang’ meaning ‘available’. (Barua 1995: 173) The Khamiyangs are a recognized scheduled tribe of Arunachal Pradesh. They use Assamese language; however Tai script is also used in religious purposes. The Khamiyangs are mainly agriculturalist people. Rice is their staple food. Along with rice a variety of wild and domestically produced vegetables constitute their diet. They are non vegetarian and eat fowl, pig, goat, wild bear, deer and a variety of fish. They also drink homemade liquor laupani (rice beer). The Khamiyang society is divided into13 exogamous clans called fan. All fans have an equal status. Some of the clans are Wailong, Choulu, Tungkhang, Mowke, Pangwok, 57 Chowlek, Thumong, Longni and Chowhai. (Barua 1995: 174) They strictly follow clan exogamy in marriages. Traditionally marriages are fixed by negotiation and payment of bride price is compulsory in marriages. Earlier the Khamiyangs were considered inferior to the Khamptis and before independence they had to pay an annual tribute to the Khampti chief. The Khamiyang women take active part in agricultural activities. They are also expert weavers. Looking after the household and rearing children are the responsibilities of the Khamiyang woman. After childbirth they observe a pollution period up to 15 days and remain isolated from the hearth and the rest of the family. The Khamiyangs either cremate or bury their dead depending on the person’s age and nature of death. The deceased’s family remains in a state of ken (pollution) for seven days, during which they take a strictly vegetarian diet. On the seventh day som- poi or poi-som (purification ritual) is performed by the monks who recite the mangala sutta to satisfy the soul of the deceased. A feast is also given on this day. (Barua 1995: 176) The village council of the Khamiyangs is known as tra headed by the chowong mung. The council settles all kinds of disputes regarding theft, property, adultery and other conflicts and the offenders are fined. The Khamiyangs are the followers of Hinayana sect of Buddhism of Tai-Burmese tradition. The Buddhist monks reside in the village monasteries. They give religious teaching to the people and also perform birth, marriage and death rituals. They also believe in the existence of family, clan and village spirits and perform rituals to propitiate these spirits. They celebrate a number of festivals of both religious and socio-economic significance. Sanken is celebrated in the month of April to welcome the New Year. Maiko Chumfai is their harvest festival. They also observe Buddha Purnima, the day of the Buddha’s birth and attainment of Nirvana.
The Khamptis are a Buddhist community of Arunachal Pradesh concentrated in the Tirap district. They are also found in the Dibrugarh and Lakhimpur districts of Assam. The Khamptis belong to the Mongoloid race. They speak Khampti language which has its own script. The Khamptis are recognized as a scheduled tribe in Arunachal Pradesh. The Khamptis are mainly agriculturalist people who practise both jhum and settled cultivation. They produce rice, maize, millet, cotton, and a variety of vegetables. The Rice is their staple food. They also eat a large variety of leafy vegetables, roots etc. They are nonvegetarian people and eat meat of fowls, pigs, goats, deer, bears and tigers. The Khampti society is a highly stratified society- with the chief at the top, monks at the middle and the laymen at the bottom. The Khamptis are divided into several exogamous fans (clans) like Namsoom, Nangmao, Manwai, Mannoi, Manpang, Manpoong,Manchi, Manoi, Mantai, Chowhati, Manjakhoon, etc. (Barua 1995: 180) The Khamptis settle their marriages through negotiation of bride price which consists of both cash and kind. However marriages through elopement and mutual consent also exist. The Khamptis have their own birth and death rituals. After childbirth the mother observes a pollution period of seven days in which she stays away from the hearth. A horoscope is prepared for the newborn child. The menstruating women are also considered to be polluted by the Khamptis and remain away from household activities. The Khamptis bury their corpses generally three days after death. The family of the dead person observes a pollution period of seven days during which they stick to vegetarian diet. The monks perform the purification ceremony to satisfy the soul of the deceased person. 59 The traditional village council of the Khamptis is known as Chow-tra headed by the hereditary village chief. The council has the responsibility to maintain peace and tranquility in the village. It settles disputes related to property, inter family disputes, thefts, adultery etc. and also has the right to fine the offender. The Khamptis follow Hinayana sect of Buddhism of Tai Burmese tradition. Each village has a monastery adorned with the images of Lord Buddha. The monks reside in the monastery and the villagers are responsible for providing them food. The monks play an indispensible part in the birth, death and marriage rituals of the Khamptis. Along with Buddhism the Khamptis also believe in the existence of family, village and clan spirits. They perform a number of rituals to propitiate these spirits for the well being of the entire community. The Khamptis celebrate Poi Sang Ken festival to welcome the New Year. Maiko Chumfai is a festival associated with agriculture observed to celebrate the new harvest. They also observe Buddha Purnima, the of Lord Buddha’s birth and attainment of Nirvana.
The Lisus also known as Yobin are concentrated in the Changlang district of Arunachal Pradesh. The word ‘Lisu’ in local language means a person who wraps his waist tightly with a cloth, ‘li’ meaning ‘to wrap tightly’ and ‘su’ meaning ‘a person’. The Lisus are recognized as a scheduled tribe in Arunachal Pradesh. Agriculture is the main source of livelihood for the Lisus and they practise both permanent and shifting cultivation. Land and forests are the two main economic resources of the Lisus. Apart from agriculture, fishing, hunting, basketry, weaving etc are the subsidiary occupations of the Lisus. Rice is their staple food. Along with rice they eat other locally 60 grown vegetables. The Lisus are non-vegetarian and they take meats of horse, dog, cat, snake and frog. The Lisu community is divided into several clans like-Ngawza, Jayza, Hayaza, Nofa Lama, Jail Hafufa, Fuche-Meche, Dafulu etc. The Lisus are not very strict about clan or village exogamy or endogamy. Cross cousin and parallel cousin marriages are also not practised. Monogamy is the rule of marriage and there is no system of payment of bride price. The Christian Lisu marriage ceremony takes place in the village church in accordance with the Christian marriage rules. The presiding priest of the marriage ceremony, the parents of the bride and the groom and their witnesses, all sign the marriage certificate known as lephechathowa. (Maitra 1995: 191) The Lisu women manage their family and also help their male counterpart in the agricultural field. They are expert in weaving and knitting. However the women have no right to inheritance or any say in the decision making. The Lisus name their newborn babies three days after birth and a small feast is arranged on this occasion. The priest gives a name to the baby. The Lisus bury their dead and the priest offers prayer at the time of burial. The Lisu community is governed by besay (village headman). The besay and his assistant are selected by the village elders. They are responsible for maintaining law and order in the village. They settle all types of disputes and have the right to fine and punish the offenders. The Lisus are the followers of Christianity and they offer prayers at the village church. They celebrate Mokhosil (the New Year), Saliapai (Good Friday) Jasipai (Thanksgiving Day) and Eschipai (Christmas). Jasipai is a festival related with harvesting. The Lisus also have a rich tradition of folk songs and dances associated with these festivals.
The Memba community of Arunachal Pradesh is concentrated in the Tuting and Mechuka circle of west Siang district. They speak Tsangla dialect and use the Tibetan script. The Membas are divided into a number of subgroups such as Umber Cheje, Oksang, Ollge, Chungla, Nonghar Cheje, Dhuthpi Cheje, Ongbo and Kochi. (Datta Choudhury 195: 1995) The Membas are a non vegetarian community. Their staple food is maize, rice and millet. Different vegetables and roots are also a part of their diet. They also use milk and milk products and butter is used as a medium of cooking. Chung so is their homemade liquor. The Membas follow community endogamy in marriages. Marriages are usually fixed by negotiation. The lamas make the match depending on the time of birth of the prospective bride and the groom. The custom of paying bride price exists in Memba community and is usually paid in kind. Apart from marriages through negotiation other forms of marriages like elopement and capture also exist among the Membas. Monogamy is the general rule in marriages. The Membas are agrarian people who practise both wet and jhum cultivation. Paddy is their main crop. Apart from paddy they also cultivate millet, maize, cotton, barley and different vegetables are grown. The Memba women work in the agricultural field, collect fodder and firewood from the forest. They also weave cloths and make carpets. The Membas perform chap, a pre-delivery ritual to ensure health and wellbeing of the baby. They name the newborn baby three days after birth and a hen is sacrificed on this occasion. The kachi (priest) gives a name to the baby. The Membas generally bury their dead. The lama performs the burial rituals and decides who will carry the dead body to the burial site. Sometimes they also cremate the dead body and in both the cases the belongings of the 62 dead man is either buried or burnt along with the dead body. The Membas also dispose off the dead by cutting the body into pieces and throwing them into the water. The person who does the cutting is known as rockomen tomdin. (Datta Choudhury 197: 1995) The traditional village council of the Memba community is headed by the sokpon. The sokpon is assisted by the thumi. They maintain the peace and order in the village and also punish the offender. The Membas are a Buddhist community. They have a gompa in each village to worship. The lamas are in charge of the gompa and they are also an integral part of every ritual. The lamas work for the general wellbeing of the community. The major festivals of the community are Losar, Druba, Pemasuba, Pemajaleng, Dosipai, Kartholain Pirathechu and Lochoi Towadrupa. All these are observed for a bumper crop, the health of the cattle, and prosperity for the members of the community. (Datta Choudhury 198: 1995).
The Mijis are a small group of people concentrated in the west Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh. They Mijis prefer to call themselves Sajalong and it is believed that the name Miji was given to them by the neighbouring Akas as the word Miji in Aka vocabulary means ‘the fire giving people’, ‘mi’ meaning fire and ‘ji’ meaning giving. The Mijis speak Sajalong dialect which belongs to the Tibeto-Burman family of languages. However they do not have their own script. The Mijis are recognised as a scheduled tribe in Arunachal Pradesh. The Mijis have a similarity with the Akas as the Miji women also tattoo their face like the Aka women. Both the sexes wear long hair and men tie it in a knot. The Mijis are agriculturalist people and maize is their staple food. Apart from maize they also raise rice, millet and pulses. They are non vegetarian and eat fish and meat of 63 mithun, cow, pig and bear. Different locally grown vegetables also constitute their diet. Changm is their homemade liquor and it forms a part of the regular diet. The Mijis are divided into a number of exogamous clans and sub-clans such as Rajijo, Sangchojo, Dangnijo, Khengjujo, Rajenjo and Bramvijo. (Ahmad 1995: 201) They follow clan exogamy and community endogamy. However they have a marital relationship with the Akas. Cross cousin marriages are preferred by the Mijis. Monogamy is the general norm, but polygamy is also permitted. Negotiation is the common mode of marriage, but marriages through elopement and courtship also exist. Bride price forms an essential part of marriage and is usually paid in kind. Agriculture is the traditional occupation of the Mijis and they practise jhum cultivation. Now a days wet and terrace cultivation is also practised. They women help the men in agricultural activities, look after children, prepare food and drink and also collect fuel and fodder. The Miji people have great skill in weaving basketry. The Mijis observe pre and post delivery rituals. They sacrifice animal to appease the deities and to ensure health and wellbeing of the newborn baby and the mother. They bury their dead and all the belongings of the dead man along with food and drinks are kept in the grave. They believe in the transmigration of the soul and the priest offers prayer so that the soul reborn in the same family. The traditional village council of the Mijis is called Malai which is headed by the nakhau. It consists of the nakhau, gubbo (nakhau’s assistant) and the village elders. The council settles disputes related to theft, land, elopement, adultery and divorce. The offenders are imposed fine both in cash and in kind. The council is also responsible for maintaining peace and order in the village. 64 The Mijis are animistic people and believe in several benevolent and malevolent spirits and deities. They also worship earth, mountain, sky, moon, sun water etc. Jang Lang is considered as the most powerful spirit. The village priest plays an important part in the performance of the rituals. Sacrificing animal also forms a major part of the performance of the rituals. Natural calamities, diseases etc are all considered to be the actions of evil spirits and animals are sacrificed to appease them. Khan Puja and Chingdong Puja are the main festivals of the Mijis celebrated both at individual and at the community level.
The Mikirs inhabit in the Balijan circle of the Lower Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh. In Assam, the Mikirs are popularly known as the Karbis and present Mikir population in Arunachal Pradesh migrated from North Lakhimpur district and Behali Mouza (now in Sonitpur) after the Second World War (Das 1995: 206). The Mikirs are recognized as a scheduled tribe in Arunachal Pradesh. They use Karbi language among themselves. The diet of the Mikir people of Arunachal Pradesh comprises rice, pulses and different kinds of vegetables. They consume milk. They are non vegetarian but abstain from pork and beef. They drink homemade rice beer in three forms- horlang (the raw form), horpo (the medium form) and ara (the finest form). Marriages in Mikir society takes place through negotiation. Monogamy is the general norm. The residence after marriage is patrilocal. The father is the head of the family who is succeeded by the eldest son. The sons inherit father’s property and only in the absence of a son the girls can inherit property. 65 The Mikirs perform pre and post delivery rituals. They perform puja for safe delivery. The baby is named by the priest. The Mikirs cremate their dead. The women supply food and drinks to the departed soul in the graveyard. Agriculture is the main occupation of the Mikir people. Paddy and jute are their main crops. The Mikir women work in the field and manage her family. She also contributes to the family’s income by weaving and collecting fuel and fodder. Weaving and basketry are the subsidiary occupations of the Mikir people. The traditional village council of the Mikirs is mei headed by the rongasar (an old and intelligent person). The rongasar is selected by the villagers and he is assisted by pherangke and chinthangasar. The mei is attended by all the adult men of the village and it settles disputes regarding theft, marriage, property etc. The Mikir community has a rich tradition of folk songs and tales. Than Karkli is their festival with agro-religious significance. They also perform Gaon Puja for better crop and wellbeing of the village.
The Mishings were earlier known as Miri. A major portion of the Mishing Population resides in Assam. The Mishing population in Arunachal Pradesh is distributed in the East Siang district. They speak Mishing language among themselves which falls under the TibetoBurman family of languages. The Mishings are not recognized as a scheduled tribe in Arunachal Pradesh. The Mishing people can be easily identified with their cloth as they prefer dark shades. The men wear galuk (shirt) and women wear ege. The Mishings are non vegetarian people and they relish all kinds of meat except beef. They smoke dry the meat and preserve it for future. Rice is their staple food. Along with rice 66 they also take a variety of locally grown vegetables. Their home made rice beer is called apong which is an integral part of every meal. Depending on the place of origin the Mishing community is divided into a number of exogamous clans and sub-clans, namely, Oyan, Saeng, Maying, Pator, Dambuk, Mirang and Tamar. (Dhar 1995: 212) The Mishing community follows community endogamy and clan exogamy in marriages. Monogamy is generally followed but polygamy also exists. Marriages through negotiation and elopement exist in the community. The payment of bride price is compulsory in case of marriages through negotiation. Cross-cousin marriage is also permitted. After childbirth Mishing women observe a pollution period of one month. After that a feast is arranged for the clansmen and the villagers. The Mishings bury their dead outside the village. On the 10th or 12th day of death a feast is arranged. They also arrange a large feast after four months for the eternal peace of the dead person. The main source of livelihood of the Mishings is agriculture. Jhum cultivation is their traditional form of agriculture. Rice and Maize are their main crops. The women play a vital role in the agriculture based economy of the Mishings. They work in the field and also contribute to the family income by rearing pigs and poultry. They collect firewood, fetch water, go for fishing prepare food and liquor and also weave clothes. The men folk work in the field, go out for hunting and also make baskets of bamboo. The traditional village council of the Mishings is known as Kebang. It consists of the village elders and act as the supreme authority. The Murong is the dormitory of the Mishings. The love affairs developed in the Murong resulted in the marriage. The Murongs are also used as the community centres. 67 The Mishings profess Donyi-Poloism as their religion and worship Donyi-Polo (the Sun Moon God) as the supreme God. They also believe in the existence of spirits and try to appease them for good luck and good health. They observe Ali-ailigang in the month of February.
The Mishmi community inhabits on the Mishmi hills in Arunachal Pradesh. The community is broadly divided into three major groups: Idu Mishmi, also known as Chulikata; Digaru Mishmi, locally called Taraon; and Miju Mishmi, also known as Kaman. (Ahmed 1995: 248) The Idu Mishmis inhabit in the Dibang Valley district while the Digaru and Miju Mishmis have their homes in the hilly terrain of Lohit District. All the three groups speak Mishmi dialect that belongs to Tibeto-Burman family of languages with some dialectical variation. The Mishmis are recognized as a scheduled tribe in Arunachal Pradesh. The Mishmi people can be identified with the rich design of their colourful dress. The dress of Digaru and Miju Mishmi are almost similar. Another distinguishing feature of the Mishmi people is their hairstyle. People of both the sexes of Digaru and Miju Mishmi Communities keep long hair, while the Idu Mishmis cut their hair round the head just above the ears. The Mishmis are non vegetarian people and eat egg, fish, pork, beef and the meat of mithun, deer, goat etc. Maize and millet are their main food grain. Along with these rice and different vegetables are also included in the Mishmi diet. They also drink locally made rice beer called yu and si. The Mishmi communities follow community endogamy and clan exogamy in marriages. However marital relationships exist between the Digaru Mishmi and the Miju Mishmis. Monogamy is the general norm of marriage while polygamy is also permitted. 68 Cross cousin marriages exist among the Mishmis and the practice of payment of bride price is also prevalent among them. The Mishmis observe pre and post delivery rituals. They also observe post delivery pollution period. The Digaru Mishmis and the Miju Mishmis cremate their dead; while the Idu Mishmis bury their dead the family of the deceased person observes a pollution period. The main economic resources of the community are land, forests and water. Land is individually owned, while water and forests are the resources of the community as a whole. They traditionally follow jhum cultivation. Paddy, millet and maize are their main crops. Animal husbandry, hunting and fishing are their subsidiary means of livelihood. They domesticate mithuns, cows, buffalos, pigs, goats and poultry for getting meat. Weaving, basketry are some other sources of livelihood of the Mishmi people. The Mishmi communities have traditional village council that settles disputes among the people. The traditional village council of the Digaru Mishmis is called kabai. The kabai is headed by the kabai-mai (headman) assisted by three to five experienced villagers. The Idu Mishmis call their traditional village council abela headed by the abelaiga (headman). The village council settles disputes related to property, land, adultery, rape, theft etc and has the right to impose fine on the offender. The Mishmis believe in a number of benevolent and malevolent sprits. The Miju Mishmis have a deep faith in matai (supreme power) and illness, crop failure, natural calamities are all attributed to evil spirits. The Digaru Mishmis believe in Broybang (water deity), Biyoyang (forest deity) and Amayang (a deity which causes epidemics and illness). (Ahmed 1995: 253) The priest tries to appease these deities by observing some rituals and also by sacrificing animals. 69 The religious faith of the Idu Mishmis is known as Nanyinyitaya or the worship of Sun God. They also worship Donyi-Polo (the Sun Moon God). Apart from these the Idu Mishmis also believe in spirits and try to appease them by sacrificing animals. They observe Reh festival seeking welfare and prosperity of the family and also for a good crop. Kemaha is a festival of the Idu Mishmis associated with agriculture and is observed when paddy is ready for harvesting. The major festivals of the Miju Mishmis are Wanshang, Taka Thung and Apaon or Thung. Wanshang is celebrated at the time of sowing, Taka Thung is celebrated in the month of February every year and Apaon or Thung is observed to pray for the departed soul. The Digaru Mishmis also celebrate a number of festivals like Tamla du, Tajanjpu, Tanu and Talu.
The Monpa tribe of Arunachal Pradesh resides in the western most districts of Arunachal Pradesh- Tawang and West Kameng. The main centers of their habitation are in and around the administrative headquarters of Tawang, Dirang and Kalaktang. Based on this geographical location the Monpas are often called Tawang or Northern Monpas, Dirang or Central Monpas and Kalaktang or Southern Monpas. The language spoken by the Monpas come under the Tibeto-Burman family of languages and in Tibetan dialect the term Monpa signifies men of the lower country. The Monpas are recognized as a scheduled tribe in Arunachal Pradesh. The Monpa community consists of the But Monpas, Dirang Monpas, Lish Monpas Panchen Monpas and Tawang Monpas. (Barua 1995: 216) A Monpa man can be easily identified with the unique dress. The costumes and adornments of Monpa people exhibit a rich variety. They cover their body with well designed and heavy woolens. The males wear shuba or todung (jacket), aliphudung (shirt), dorna (trousers) and khutung or gamu (cap 70 made of yak’s fur). The women wear todung, sinka (gown) and a waist belt called mukhok or chhudang. The traditional economy of the Monpas is dependent on agriculture, animal husbandry, trade and commerce. They rear yak for meat and milk and sheep for meat and wool. Milk and milk products like churpi, ghee, butter etc are traditionally used by Monpa people. The diet of the Monpa community includes cereals, meat, fish and vegetables. They take beef, pork, mutton, yak’s meat etc. Butter tea is their speciality. They prepare liquor called bangchen, phak, chhung, from rice, millet, and maize. They are also fond of ara (distilled liquor). Maize is the staple food of the Monpas. The Monpas are a hardworking tribe. A Monpa woman collects firewood, works in the field apart from looking after the family. She is a good weaver and is engaged with spinning, weaving and carpet making. The Monpas are also experts in dyeing garments, paper making, painting, carpentry, wood curving and bamboo work. The Monpa society is patriarchal and patrilineal. The family comprises of the parents and their unmarried children. Although monogamy is the common form of marriage, polygamy is also practised. The system of paying bride price exists in Monpa society. The Monpas performed several life cycle related rituals. A pregnant woman seek Lama’s blessing for safe delivery and also for the wellbeing of the child. The lama prepares a horoscope for the child and gives him a name. The Monpas cremate their dead bodies by cutting it into 108 pieces and throwing it into the river. The Monpas have traditional village council headed by the Tsorgen (village headman). The Tsorgen is assisted by Thumee (council member) and Gomin (messenger). The village council settles disputes related to land, water, theft, rape, adultery and personal 71 and family conflicts. The offenders are fined both in cash and kind. The village council of the But Monpas is called bulu headed by three headmen called akhoo. The village council of the Kalaktang Monpas is mangma and of the Tawang Monpas is chovenkang. The Monpa villages are situated on the slopes of hill with a gompa (village monastery) on the top of the hill. They are the followers of Lamaistic school of Tibetan Buddhism. The Monpa villages are dotted with stone shrines called mane and chorten. The gompa is the place where the images of Lord Buddha and the religious books are kept. The gompas are under the supervision of a Lama and several flags are raised around a gompa so that it can be noticed from quite a distance. The great Tawang Monastery is the centre of Monpa life and culture. Along with Buddhist religion, the Monpas also observe their traditional tribal rituals. The Bhut Monpas do not profess Buddhism and they have their own traditional faiths, beliefs and festivals. Losar is the most important festival of the Monpas celebrated to welcome the New Year as per the Tibetan calendar. The Monpas are also rich in folk dances. They perform a number of pantomime dances. Ajilamu and yak dances are the popular dances of the Monpas. Seksaphu and Chudung aphu are the festivals of the But Monpas to appease the deities of hill and crop respectively. Torgya, Choskar are the festivals which they celebrate with great zeal and vigour.
The Nas are popularly known as Na-Tagin in the local administrative circle. They are distributed in the Taksing circle in the Upper Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh. They speak Na language within the community. They are listed as a scheduled tribe in Arunachal Pradesh. The Nas are non vegetarian people and they eat beef, mutton chicken and the meat of deer. They also consume barley, rice and wheat along with a number of locally grown 72 vegetables. They also use milk and milk products. Their local liquor is tami-apo which is prepared out of millet and barley. They also prepare rice beer called hipi. The Nas are divided into a number of exogamous clans, such as, Tishi, Hafi, Hari and Chadar. (Das & Sarkar 1995: 206) The Nas have marital relationship with the Nishis. Negotiation is their traditional way of marriage and payment of bride price is mandatory. Polygamy is prevalent in the Na society. The Nas observe post delivery pollution period and take a purification bath on fourth or fifth day of delivery. They bury their dead. They clad the dead body and keep liquor and edibles at the burial site for the deceased person. The primary occupation of the Nas is agriculture. They also rear animals for meat. Hunting, weaving etc are some other means of livelihood. The Nas are the followers of Mahayana sect of Buddhism. They also believe in a number of spirits. The main festival of the Nas is Hiju celebrated in the month of November on a date specified in the Tibetan calendar. They also celebrate Losar in the month of January.
The Nishis inhabit mostly in Lower Subansiri district and also some parts of the Upper Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh. The Nishis were earlier known as Dafla. But now they prefer to be called Nishi as they consider the term Dafla to be derogatory. According to their oral traditions the Nishis believe themselves to be the descendents of Abo Tani, the mythical father. The Nishis use Nishi language and they are listed as a scheduled tribe in Arunachal Pradesh. Rice is the staple food of the Nishis. They are non vegetarian and eat chicken, pork, beef, meat of mithun, monkey and other wild animals. They also eat a variety of locally 73 grown and wild vegetables. They prepare liquor from rice and millet. The rice beer is called pone while the beer brewed from millet is known as poling. The Nishi community is divided into three major groups, namely Dol, Dodum and Dopum. (Dhar 1995: 227) Each group is again divided into several exogamous clans. In marriages the Nishis also maintain community endogamy and clan exogamy. Cross cousin marriage exists among the Nishis. Polygamy exists in the Nishi society and the ability to keep more than one wife is considered as a prestigious issue. The general form of marriage is marriage through negotiation and payment of bride price is also compulsory. The father of a girl child takes bride price for his daughter even when the girl is just a child and it is a serious matter if such a girl elopes with another person. The Nishis observe a post delivery pollution period of five days. In case of death also a pollution period of five days is observed. They bury their dead near the house. But if a person dies in accident, he is buried at a distant place. The Nishis are agriculturalist people and practise both shifting and wet cultivation. Rice, millet and maize are their main crops. They also rear domesticated animals for meat. Weaving, hunting, basketry etc are some other means of livelihood of the Nishi people. The Nishis resolve their disputes through the gindong (village headman). The gindong is assisted by ten donkum (elders). They resolve all kinds of disputes in the village and have the right to fine the offender. The Nishis are the followers of Donyi Polo. They worship the Sun Moon God. The priest plays an important role in all the rituals of the Nishi people. The major festival of the Nishis is Longteyalu observed in the spring season. They also worship their ancestors and several spirits.
The Noctes are concentrated in the Khonsa, Namsang and Laju circle of Tirap district of Arunachal Pradesh. The word Nocte is the combination of two words ‘noc’ meaning ‘village’ and ‘te’ meaning ‘people’. Thus the name Nocte etymologically signifies ‘people living in an organized community’. They speak Nocte language that belongs to the TibetoBurman family of languages. They do not have a script. The Noctes are listed as a scheduled tribe in Arunachal Pradesh. The Nocte villages are situated on the top and slopes of the hills. They are non vegetarian people and relish fish, egg and a variety of meat including pork and beef. Maize and millet are their staple food. Rice, cereals and a number of locally grown vegetables are also consumed by them. Their local liquor is called kham. The Noctes are divided into three distinct social classes, namely, lowing (which consists of the chief and his descendents), channa (the commoners) and mikhiak (the lower status group). (Ahmed 1995: 283) Each of these classes has been divided into a number of exogamous clans. The Noctes follow clan exogamy in marriage. The traditional form of marriage is marriage through negotiation. The Noctes perform post delivery rituals. On the third day of delivery the child’s ear is pierced and the naming ceremony is usually held after one month. The priest gives the child a name. The Noctes cremate their dead bodies three days after death. However in case of death by accident the body is cremated on the same day. Agriculture is the main occupation of the Nocte people. They practise both jhum and wet cultivation. Maize, millet and rice are their main crops. Animal husbandry, hunting, fishing etc are the supplementary occupations of the Nocte people. 75 The traditional village council of the Noctes is nongwang that constitutes of twelve village elders and is headed by the village chief. The council is responsible for maintaining law and order in the village and also settles disputes related to land, theft, adultery, elopement and divorce. The Noctes have deep faith in the existence of malevolent and benevolent spirits. They try to appease the spirits by sacrificing fowls and pigs. Some of the Noctes have also adopted Vaishnavism and Christianity as their religion. Ranglo and Chalo are the major festivals of the Noctes.
The Sherdukpens inhabit the Rupa circle of West Kameng district. They speak Sherdukpen language that belongs to the Tibeto-Burman family of languages. The Sherdukpens are listed as a scheduled tribe in Arunachal Pradesh. Rice and maize are the staple food of the Sherdukpen people. Their diet also includes millet, vegetables, fish and meat of yak, sheep, deer, bear etc. Their local liquor is called arrah and is brewed from maize and millet. They also consume milk and milk products. They also take butter tea in Tibetan style. The Sherdukpen society is divided into two moieties called Thong and Chao. Moiety endogamy is strictly followed. The Thong moiety occupies a superior position in society, and exerts a dominating influence on the Chao moiety. (Barua 1995: 289) These moieties are again divided into clans. The Sherdukpens follow clan exogamy in marriage. Marriages are settled through negotiation and monogamy is the general norm. Both parallel and cross cousin marriage exist in Sherdukpen society. 76 The Sherdukpens observe pre and post delivery rituals. The lama prepares a horoscope for the newborn child and the name giving ceremony is usually held three days after birth. The Sherdukpens cremate their dead. They observe a pollution period of one week and vegetarian food is taken during this time. If a person dies an accidental death the dead body is taken directly to the grave. The main occupation of the Sherdukpens is agriculture. The traditional method of cultivation is jhum cultivation but wet cultivation is also practised. The women take active part in the entire process of sowing to harvesting. They also make country liquor and knit woollen garments. The traditional village council of the Sherdukpens is called bulu and is headed by two thug-bos selected by the village elders. The council settles village disputes and the offenders are fined in cash or kind. The Sherdukpens belong to the Mahayana section of Tibetan Buddhism. Each village has a gompa and the lamas are in charge of the gompa. The lama gives religious teaching to the villagers and also performs birth, death and marriage rituals. The Sherdukpens also believe in the existence of benevolent and malevolent spirits. They try to appease these spirits for the wellbeing of the family and the community as a whole. The major festivals of the Sherdukpens are Losar celebrated in January or February to welcome the Tibetan New Year and Choksar celebrated in the month of May or June.
The Singphos are concentrated in the Lohit and Changlang districts of Arunachal Pradesh. They call themselves Jingpho. The Singphos speak Jingphaw language which 77 belongs to the Tibeto-Burman family of languages. The Singphos are listed as a scheduled tribe in Arunachal Pradesh. The Singphos are a non vegetarian community and they consume fish, beef, pork, mutton and meat of fowl. Rice is the staple food of the Singphos. Millet, cereals and a variety of vegetables are also included in their diet. The local liquor of the Singphos is called chapup. The Singphos are an endogamous community. The community is divided into several exogamous clans. In marriages the Singphos maintain clan exogamy and community endogamy. The payment of bride price is a must in marriage. Monogamy is the general norm in marriage. The Singpho woman observes a pollution period of fifteen days after childbirth. They also perform a name giving ceremony and a feast is arranged on this occasion. The Singphos bury or cremate the dead depending on the nature of death. The funeral is carried out by the priest in accordance with the Buddhist rituals. The Singphos are settled cultivators. Maize, millet, pulses, mustard seeds etc are their main crops. Mung is the traditional village council of the Singphos. The agvi is the head of the mung who selects magam and ningbo ningla to assist him. It settles all kinds of disputes in the village. The Singphos profess Buddhism as their religion. However their religion is a blend of both Buddhist faith and traditional tribal religion. They believe in a number of benevolent and malevolent spirits. They try to appease the spirits for the welfare of house, clan and village. Sangken is the Buddhist festival celebrated by the Singphos in the spring season. Sipongyoung Poi is celebrated in the month of February to welcome the Singpho New Year.
The Sulungs call themselves Puroik as they consider the term Sulung derogatory which means slave. The name Sulung was given to them by the Bangnis who kept them as their slave. According to a local myth the Sulung’s forefathers took a loan from the Bangnis, which they could not return. This led to their becoming slaves to the Bangnis. The Sulungs are distributed in the East Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh. They speak Sulung dialect and also fluent in Bangni dialect. The Sulungs are recognized as a scheduled tribe in Arunachal Pradesh. The Sulungs are non vegetarian. They eat the meat of mithun, sheep, cow and goat. Their food includes maize, millet, rice etc. Rice is their staple food. They also smoke dry fish and meat to preserve it for the future. Their rice beer is called pu. The Sulung community is divided into a number of exogamous clans. They follow community endogamy and clan exogamy in marriages. Cross cousin marriage exists among them. Bride price is compulsory in marriage and it has to be paid in kind. Although monogamy is the norm polygamy also exists in the Sulung society. The Sulungs do not have traditional village council. The Sulungs profess traditional tribal religion. Their major festival is Gumkum-Gompka, which is generally held in the month of April.
The Tagins are distributed in the Upper Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh. The Tagins believe themselves to be the descendents of the mythical father Abo-Tani. They speak Tagin language which belongs to the Tibeto-Burman family of languages. It does not have a script of its own. The Tagin community is listed as a scheduled tribe in Arunachal Pradesh. 79 The Tagin diet includes rice, millet, maize, fish, meat, vegetables etc. their home made rice beer is called ape. The Tagin community is divided into a number of exogamous clans. Clan exogamy is strictly followed in marriages. Marriage through negotiation is the common form of marriage, however marriage thorough elopement also exit. The custom of paying bride price exists in Tagin community. Both monogamy and polygamy are practised, but polyandry is strictly prohibited. The Tagins name the new born baby five days after birth. The priest gives the baby a name. The Tagins bury their dead. The body is buried in the burial place adjacent to the house. They sacrifice animals to appease the spirit that causes the death to occur. Agriculture is the primary occupation of the Tagins and they practise both jhum and shifting cultivation. Hunting, fishing, weaving, craftwork etc are some other traditional occupations of the Tagins. The Tagins are the followers of Donyi-Poloism. They also worship a number of spirits and deities. The major festival of the Tagins is the worship of Si-Donyi. ‘Si’ meaning ‘earth’ and ‘Donyi’ meaning ‘sun’ the festival is the post harvest celebration when they pray for the welfare of the community.
The Tangsa is one of the major tribes of Arunachal Pradesh. They are distributed in the hilly areas of Changlang district of the state. The word Tangsa comprises two words ‘Tang’ meaning ‘hill’ and ‘Sa’ meaning ‘children or people’. The Tangsa community includes a number of sub-tribes Havi, Jugli, Kimsing, Lungchang, Lungphi, Lungri, Morang, Mosang, Muklom, Ronrang, Sangwal, Snake, Tikhak, Tonglim and Yongkuk. (Husain 1995: 80 313) Each sub-tribe speaks a separate dialect which belongs to the Tibeto-Burman family of languages. The Tangsas are recognized as a scheduled tribe in Arunachal Pradesh. The Tangsas are non-vegetarian people and they relish pork and beef. Rice is their staple food. The community is also fond of local liquor which is known by different names like chal, jaw, kham, ju and sai among different sub-tribes. Agriculture is the main occupation of the Tangsas and they practise both jhum and wet cultivation. Besides paddy they also grow ginger, chilli, turmeric etc and other seasonal crops. The Tangsas follow clan exogamy and community endogamy in marriage. Cross cousin marriage is preferred by them. Monogamy is the general norm of marriage and the custom of payment of bride price exists among the Tangsa people. Marriage through negotiation is the most common form of marriage. Some of the Tangsas bury their dead, while some others cremate them. The priest performs the sacred rituals. The village life of the Tangsa is regulated by a village council. The council is known by different names among the different groups. The Lungchangs call it khapongwa, Juglis call it khapong and Kimsings call it mosangs khapo. The council is headed by the chief and it settles all types of disputes. The Tangsas are the worshippers of a number of benevolent and malevolent spirits. They offer worship through performance of various rituals and sacrifice of animals. Mol is the main festival of the Tangsas and is celebrated in the month of May-June. Other important festivals of the community are Chanpang, Kuk and Kuh.
The Wanchos, also known as Konyak are distributed in the Tirap district of Arunachal Pradesh. The Wancho villages are thickly populated and are situated on the top of the hills. 81 They speak Wancho language that belongs to the Tibeto-Burman family of languages. The Wanchos believe that they have migrated to their present habitant from Tangnu and Tsangjan area of Nagaland. The Wanchos are non vegetarian people and they eat fish and all kinds of meat including pork, beef and meat of mithun. Rice and millet are the staple foods of the Wanchos. Their diet also includes a variety of vegetables. Ju is their local liquor which is a part of the regular meal. The Wancho society is divided into two distinct social divisions: the chiefs and the commoners. The chiefs are called Wangham and the commoners are known as Wangpan. (Ahmed 1995: 401) The Wanchos follow clan exogamy and community endogamy in marriage. Both polygamy and monogamy are in practice. The system of bride Price is also absent in Wancho society. The common form of marriage is marriage through negotiation. The Wanchos name their new born babies three days after birth. They also perform a ritual for a boy to enter the morung (boy’s dormitory). The Wanchos dispose the dead bodies by keeping it in the grave. They also dispose the belongings of the deceased man along with the body. After 15 to 20 days a feast is arranged and they clean the skull and keep it in a clay pot. The primary occupation of the Wanchos is agriculture. Their traditional method of cultivation is jhum cultivation, but wet and terrace cultivation are also practiced. Rice maize and millet are their main crops. The Wancho men are expert in wood curving, cane and bamboo work. The women are good weavers. 82 The traditional village council of the Wanchos is called ngowang which is headed by the wangham (chief). The wangham selects other members of the council. The council maintains law and order in the village and settles all kinds of disputes. The Wamchos profess traditional tribal religion and believe in a number of benevolent and malevolent spirits and deities. They also worship natural forces like the moon, sky, sun and land. They try to appease the evil spirits by sacrificing fowls and pigs. The main festival of the Wanchos is Oriya celebrated for ten days in March-April for a good harvest and health of the members of the community. Some other festivals of the community are Pangrum, Sachavan and Chaksai.
The Zakhrings are a small tribal community of Arunachal Pradesh. They are also known as Meyors. They are distributed in the Tirap district of Arunachal Pradesh. The Zakhrings speak Zakhring dialect which belongs to the Tibeto-Burman family of languages. They are listed as a scheduled tribe in Arunachal Pradesh. Rice and wheat are the main food of the Zakhrings. They also consume maize, millet, barley and a variety of vegetables. The Zakhrings relish fish and all kinds of meat like beef, mutton, pork and the meat of deer, mithun etc. Andok or bunak is their local liquor which is a part of the regular meal. The Zakhrings are an endogamous community, but they allow marriage with their neighbouring Tibetan community. Cross cousin marriage is also permissible in the Zakhring society. Marriage through negotiation is the common form of marriage and monogamy is the general norm. They pay bride price at the time of marriage and it is usually paid in kind. 83 The Zakhrings get their newborn baby blessed by the lama. A naming ceremony is held when the baby is eight months old. Lama names the baby and also prepares a horoscope. Earlier the Zakhrings used to cut the dead bodies and throw it into the river, but now they cremate their corpses. The family of the deceased person observes a pollution period when they stick to vegetarian diet. The lama performs rituals to satisfy the soul of the deceased. The primary occupation of the Zakhrings is agriculture. They grow wheat, paddy, maize and a variety of vegetables. They rear domesticated animals like cow, oxen, pig, sheep, fowl etc. the Zakhring women are expert weavers. Apart from clothes, they also weave woollen carpets. The traditional village council of the community is headed by genpo or the village headman who is selected by the villagers. The genpo settles all disputes related to land, theft, adultery and family conflicts in the village. The Zakhrings are the followers of Lamaistic sect of Tibetan Buddhism. They have gompa in each village where they pray to god. The Lamas live in the gompa and they perform birth, death and marriage rituals for the villagers. Along with Buddhism, the Zakhrings also have deep faith in traditional tribal religion. They believe in a number of deities and try to appease them by worshipping them. The main festival of the Zakhrings is Sung Khnu celebrated at the time of harvesting. They also celebrate Losar to welcome the Tibetan New Year. Tso Tsngpo Wanley is their spring festival.
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