During the post Second World War period, development was pre-eminently concerned with ‘economic development’, which was precisely growth oriented. But the eve of stand could not explained important matter concerning development phenomena in a holistic manner.
In the second stage, we come across a strand of thought pertaining to ‘economic development and social change’. Although economic approach to development, during this stage was, no doubt, paramount, sociological thinking concerning institutional framework of society, directed/induced socio-cultural change etc. were exercised.
In the third stage, the disenchantment with growth oriented economic development gave rise to the concept of ‘Human Centered Development’. Realizing people as the cause and consequent development, it was realized to include common man in the planning process, mobilize human resource and accentuate human capital formation, etc.
Further, human vis-a-vis natural mobilization came to the fore. Currently, there is increasing consciousness to label it as sustainable and participatory development in the context of ‘human development’, moreover in globalization perspective.
The policy frame work of tribal development could be perceived through the lenses of isolation, assimilation and integration and the obsolescence of the first two gave rise to the third, which preached mainstreaming without any imposition. However, the cardinal goals of the tribal development were provision of basic subsistence, promotion, of self dignity and freedom from servitude. We may realize that like other society, tribal society contain three significant sub-systems, such as techno-economic, social-structural and ideological. These three sub-systems are mutually inclusive and interactive although each has its own uniqueness. All these subsystems are supportive for the attainment of the development goals. It may be reiterated that the promotion of the quality of environment (QOE) and the quality of life (QOL), promote human development as the development of natural resource and human resource are complementary to each other.
The glimpses of genesis of tribal development intervention in India during the post independence period reveal that it had humble beginning with the community development block approach and then special effort with SMPT, TD and TSP were gradually introduced and the TSP had commitment for fulfillment Constitutional mandate along with socio-economic development of tribal people. The expected outcome of the tribal development initiative are social mobilization, announcement of educational status, announcement of health status, announcement of economic status, establishment of self governance and the like. And these would lead to tribal empowerment which has been discussed elsewhere in the report.
Tribal communities have retained several socio-cultural peculiarities for managing their internal affairs. These socio-cultural characteristics are ancestral and differ from that of their Hindu neighbours. Besides tribal endogamy, they have got clan system, different types of marriages, youth dormitories, traditional leadership, religious beliefs and practices, dance and music etc. All the tribal communities of the State are patrilineal and not a single matrilineal group is seen. Moreover, the families are generally monogamous, patrilocal and mostly of nuclear type.
Among several tribes, there are sub-sections based on various factors, such as occupation, level of acculturation and regional differences. There are several sub-sections among the Kandha, such as Kutia Kandha, Dungaria Kandha, Pengo Kandha, Malua Kandha etc. which are based on regional differences and level of acculturation. Similarly among the Saoras, there are Lanjia Saora, Mane Saora, Jadu Saora, Jathi Saora, Bhimo Saora, Kampu Saora and Sudha Saora based primarily on occupational differences.
Among the Bhuiya, there are Paudi (Hill) Bhuyan, Rajkuli Bhuiya and Plain Bhuiyan.
The Gonds of northern Orissa have no linkage with the Gonds found in Koraput and Phulbani districts in southern Orissa.
The former considers the latter as backward group.
The Kharia have sub-sections, such as Dhelki Kharia, Dudh Kharia and Hill Kharia.
Among Mundas, there are sections, such as Nagbansi Munda, Erenga Munda and Oriya Munda.
The sub-sections which exist among the Koyas are Kamar Koya (Black smith) and Gampa Koya (basket makers).
In most cases these sub-sections are endogamous and some of these have become separate groups. Clan organization which is the basis of social and to some extent, political organization of almost all tribal groups inhabiting Orissa, forms the fundamental feature of their social organization so far as kinship, marriage and family relations are concerned. Among most of the tribal groups clans, are totemistic which are respected and worshipped by the respective group. These totemic objects, plants or animals are believed to have helped ancestors of the group concerned in the past and are treated as sacred. Clan exogamy is common and marriage within the same clan is strictly forbidden and deviation of clan rules are severely treated by their society and the culprits are usually punished with excommunication.
Among several tribes, village exogamy exists and marriage within the members of the same village is not permitted. Village exogamy is found among the Kandha, Bonda, Juang and Bhuiyan. In some tribal societies, marriage within a group in villages is prohibited as they are treated as brothers and sisters. In such cases, some of the important religious rites are performed collectively in the main village or in different villages by rotation. This happens among the Kandha when they observe the Kedu-parab. All the tribes are endogamous. But now-a-days due to contact with outsiders, at various places, such as factories, mining, quarries, mills, railways where large number of people of different ethnic groups gather, examples of inter tribe and inter ethnic marriages are reported. But, it is a social taboo to marry outside the own tribe. There are various ways of acquiring mates for marriage. To mention but a few there are marriage by negotiation, marriage by ceremonial capture, marriage by exchange, marriage by service, marriage by intrusion, marriage by elopement and widow remarriages. The negotiation marriage is prestigious and very elaborate and expensive. Payment of bride price is always there among almost all tribes.
One of the characteristic institutions is the youth dormitory which is present in one form or other among several tribal communities of the State. It is variously called by different communities. The Juangs call it Majang, the Bhuiyans name it Mandaghar or Darbar, the Kandha call it Dhangarghar and the Bondas call it Ingersin. The Oraons who had it in the past named it Jonkerpa for boys and Pelerpa for girls. Dormitories are either mono-sexual or bisexual. The tribes, such as the Juang and the Bhuiyan have well organized dormitory system. Among them, the dormitory is centrally located in a conspicuous house. It has walls on three sides and is open in front. The wooden pillars and the inner walls are carved with decorative symbols and designs linear, floral as well as animals. In front of the dormitory there is an open space where dances take place at night. The village elders assemble at the dormitory for every important activity concerning corporate life. Here they settle the disputes and meet the visitors from outside. It is a resting place for the male relatives and outsiders. The unmarried boys sleep here at night. The unmarried girls have separate dormitory generally located in one corner of the settlement, which may not be easily identified by the non-tribal outsiders. The youth dormitory is not only a common place but also a school of dance and folklores and tribal etiquette.
Tribal Economy Tribal economy in Orissa is subsistence –oriented. It shows wide variation in the economic pursuits which are greatly influenced by ecological characteristics of their habitat and own culture and tradition. Basing on their traditional economy the tribes of Orissa may be grouped under
(a) hunters and food-gatherers
(b) cattle herders
(c) simple artisans
(d) shifting cultivators
(e) settled agriculturists and
(f) industrial workers.
Tribal economy still revolves round agriculture in some form or other and continues to be the mainstay of the people as about 90 per cent of their main workers have returned as cultivators and agricultural labourers in census reports.
(1) In the first group come the Mankidia, Mankirdia, Hill Kharia, Birhor, Malhar and the Korwa who exclusively depend on forests for their livelihood. They are found in forest areas of Sundargarh and Mayurbhanj districts. They are semi-nomadic and move from one place to another in small groups. They build temporary sheds made of branches of tree or bamboo. Their fundamental economic base includes a camp life and a division of labour with males hunting and collecting gum, lac and fibers for making rope and females gathering edibles from the forest. For the development of these groups the government has started special projects with a view to helping them to lead a settled life in rehabilitation colonies.
(2) Although most of the tribes rear domestic animals of different varieties, namely bullock and cow, goat sheep, pig and fowl primarily to meet their own requirement and occasionally for sale as a supplementary source of income. The Koya found in Malkangiri district, is the only pastoral and cattle breeder in Orissa. They do not milk cow or eat milk products. They carry on slash and burn type of cultivation in forests to supplement their income.
(3) In Orissa, most of the tribal communities have knowledge of a number of household crafts, like carpentry, leaf plate making, spinning and weaving, broom stick and mat making etc which are primarily aimed at meeting their household requirement. Only a few tribes, like Mankidi in Mayurbhanj district and plain Juangs in Angul district are practising bamboo basketry and the Kol-Lohara in Sundargarh district are undertaking blacksmithy as their main source of livelihood. They sell these items to neighbouring people. But these communities now face scarcity of raw materials and competition from others especially in the tribal markets where traders of such commodities come from outside.
In addition to these, some of the tribal groups show excellence in the production of some other crafts and art objects, which are typical. The Kandha show great skill in carving wooden doors and tobacco pipes, the Juang in engraved bamboo combs, carved wooden pillars and relief works on inner walls and painting on outer walls of the bachelors 31 dormitory, the Santal in colorful wall painting, the Dungaria Kandha girls in embroidery work and Lanjia Saora in wall painting /icons, etc., to mention but a few. (4) Shifting cultivation is an age-old practice among several tribes, namely, Bonda, Koya, Paroja, Didayi, Gadaba, Koya, Dungaria Kandha, Kutia Kandha and Saora in southern region and Juang and Pauri Bhuyan in the northern region of the State. Although it is commonly known as ‘Podu’ in Orissa, different tribal groups have different names. It is known as Living or Kunda chas among the Bonda, Haru among Dungaria Kandha, Podu among Gadaba, Paroja, Didayi and Kutia Kandha, Bagad among Saora, Koman or Toila among Bhuyan and Biringa among Juang. It is undertaken in forest areas, hill tops and hill slopes covered with forest.
The traditional ownership pattern of area under shifting cultivation differs in different regions. In southern Orissa the swiddens are individually owned by family or lineage groups, while in northern Orissa, it is under communal ownership at the village level. The sequence of operation in shifting cultivation consists of
- a) selection of area
- b) distribution among the households (in case of communal ownership of land)
- c) making clearings
(d) burning of felled materials and spreading of ashes
- e) tilling with bullock driven plough (as among the Pauri Bhuyan) or hoeing and dibbling
- f) broadcasting of seeds
- g) weeding and debushing
- h) guarding the crops and
- i) harvesting.
A patch is generally used for 2 to 3 consecutive years and then left fallow for a period of 7 to 8 years to recoup. A number of crops are grown in the same patch and are harvested one after another according to their home consumption requirement. The crops which are grown consist of short duration rice (among Pauri Bhuyan and Juang), ragi and other minor millets, oil seeds, pulses, ginger, turmeric, chilly and creeper vegetables. The practice of shifting cultivation in case of some tribes has mythical origin. Several rituals are observed at different stages of operation. The village secular headman and the priest play important roles for ensuring smooth operation. Labour is mainly provided by the family members. It is carried under rain-fed condition. Even in drought situation, short duration crops give yield. Realising the adverse effects of shifting cultivation the Government have been taking several measures to stop it by providing alternative employments through colonization, allotment of developed land and supply of inputs etc.
The major bulk of tribal people in Orissa are settled agriculturists, though they supplement their economy with collection of minor forest produce and wage earning. Numerically important tribes, such as the Santal, Oraon, Plain Bhuyan, Plain Kandha, Munda, Ho and Gond inhabiting comparatively plain areas of the State carry on settled cultivation. Even some of the tribes who carry on shifting cultivation are taking up settled agriculture wherever suitable land is available. Their main crop is rice. However, tribal agriculture in general is characterized by simple technology, simple division of labour, small units of production with low capital investment, use of low yielding local seeds. It further suffers from small size of landholding, land alienation, undulated land surface, lack of assured source of irrigation and finally poverty and ignorance of the people. There are some tribal groups who are known for their distinctive agricultural practices.
The Lanjia Saora Tribal Scenario in Orissa of Gajapati and Rayagada districts are famous for terrace cultivation and horticultural plantation, like lemon, orange and banana and the Dungaria Khandha for growing pineapple and banana in huge quantity. Recognizing the importance of agriculture in the life of majority people including tribals, Government has been implementing various schemes to raise agricultural production through modern scientific techniques.
Presently quite a sizable tribal population in the State has migrated to mining, industrial and urban areas in search of employment on temporary or permanent basis. In recent time, a number of industrial and mining establishments have come up in the heart of tribal areas and in the neighbourhood. Mostly persons from developed communities, like Santal, Oraon, Munda and Gond have moved to such areas for employment. This has resulted in large scale out-migration from tribal areas to mining and industrial areas located both inside and outside the State. In such places they stay in unhealthy environment and are frequently cheated by contractors and employers in the payment of wages. In such a situation they get frustrated, which occasionally results in agitation and unrest.
