Indian tribes & religion

Our perceptions about the tribes have varied across time. This is largely linked to our understanding of their changing socio-cultural habits. It is interesting to note the history of how tribes were classified over the past decades in India itself. They were initially classified as “Animists” and in 1911 as “tribal animists or people following tribal religion.”

In the Census Reports of 1921, they were specified as “Hill and Forest Tribes.” The 1931 Census described them as Primitive Tribes. The Government of India Act 1935 specified the tribal population as “Backward Tribes”. However, in the Census Report 1941, they were classified as “Tribes” only. In present times, a community has to be judged along the criteria of backwardness, remoteness, distinctive culture, shyness for contact etc. to be classified as scheduled tribe.

Some of the features of tribes of India are very unique. The tribes have a sex ratio of 990 females per 1000 males as against the average national sex ratio of 940 females per 1000 males. It is also interesting to note that almost 90 percent of the tribes live in rural India and only 10 percent are in urban areas, whereas, for the overall population of India almost 40 percent of the population today live in urban areas.

Between 2009-10 and 2011-12, the percentage of tribes that rose above the poverty line was only 2 percent i.e. from 47 to 45 percentage. However, in 2011-12, the overall rural population had only 25 percent people below the poverty line. There is, thus, when it comes to economic status, a gap of 20 percent between tribes and the average population of India. This is glaring aspect which will perhaps take many decades to be bridged.

While tribes from 8.6 percent of the country’s population, they occupy 15 percent of India’s geography. More than half of the Scheduled Tribes are concentrated in central

India – the States of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Jharkhand – largely synchronous with the coal and mineral belt. Not surprisingly, the abundant exploitation of minerals – coal, iron-ore, bauxite, zinc etc. mirrors their pervasive social and cultural exploitation. It is also a fact that the tribes have lived and still live by themselves. For them their forests, their families and their animals are more important and comprise their world. They have historically resisted any form of interference in their traditional way of life; not surprisingly, in the past the colonial administration (with its tacit support for evangelism) was naturally very curious and even contemptuous of the tribes.

For tribes, religion is instinctive rather than deliberate – their respect of nature is spontaneous and not borne out of any societal goal. For them worship of a higher entity is more about thankfulness – and not a dependency – for seeking greater material gains or a better life.

The famous sociologist Emile Durkheim viewed religion as something eminently social. But, for tribes, it is derived from their spontaneous feel for nature and is not compelled by their community. Recognizing the social origin of religion, Durkheim argued that religion acted as a source of solidarity and a meaning for life; he saw it as a critical part of the social system. On the contrary, for tribes religion is not intended to have a social role, to evoke a sense of collective responsibility. Religion for tribes is nature and nature is religion – a life process, a force that is bigger than them – which they regard and respect.

Gujarat

Totemism

Totemism, for instance, is their symbolism of this superior force and they imbue to it a certain level of sacredness which is individually driven. As religion is not regulatory it manifests itself in their natural freedom in routine things like sex and marriage in which they are not bound by societal laws, but by a free-flowing sense of tolerance, balance and inclusion.

Over the centuries as forest dwelling tribes and hunterforagers became agro-pastoralists, they have been influenced by other communities. But it has not been a one-way street. Several hindu deities like Jagannath (worshipped by Saoras) and Shiva (worshipped as Baradeo, for instance, by Gonds, Bhils and Baigas) have traditionally been worshipped by the tribes in primitive manifestations like stone and rock. The presence of various tribal deities bearing a strong resemblance to the Gods worshipped by Hindus and the presence of Shiva temples and sculptures in various scheduled areas begs the question: Could these Hindu gods have originally been tribal deities? Have they been squarely expropriated by the mainstream communities? Did both Buddhism and Hinduism, competing fiercely with each other for footprint, reach out actively to tribes to integrate them into their fold and increase their evangelical compass.

Let us look at the religious practices of tribes in some regions. In Himachal Pradesh, tribal areas of Kinnaur, Lahaul and Pangi support an incredibly unique system of following Hindu and Buddhism under one roof. Bharmour is an absolute Hindu dominated region and Spiti is a complete Buddhist region following Tibetan Buddhism. The rituals her are divided into Hindu Parampara, Buddhist Parampara and Dev Parampara (the tribal way of following local deities, gods and goddesses). Kinnaur, the place of prominent deities like Ormic and Dakhen celebrates Flaich Ukhayang Festival, Phagul and Losar festivals, which are related with the local deities. The upper region of Kinnaur is Buddhist dominating area where monasteries not only provide religious instructions but also remain center of festivities and spiritual learning. Lahaul is also covered with several monasteries and temples of Hindu Gods and Goddesses like Shiva, Hadimba and Mrikula etc. Fagli is a winter celebration in Lahaul valley to welcome the New Year. Tsa is a Buddhist post mortal ritual, which was revived after almost 100 years in year 2016 at the confluence of Chanderbhaga River. Cham dance or mask dance is very popular in Spiti. Pangi, the place of Mindal Mata as the main deity of the region, practices both Hindu and Buddhist religions. Jukaro is a winter festival to celebrate New Year and Phoolyatra is autumn festival of the valley.

Unlike Lahaul and Kinnaur, the local deities don’t move out on chariots from the temples in Pangi valley and they worship nature and ancestors. Bharmour, the place of 84 temples & Manimahesh Kailash, is supposed to belong to lord Shiva. The religion in practice is Hindu and the primary community belongs to Gaddi tribe, the shepherds. Manimahesh Yatra, Chhatradi Jatar, Keling Wazir jagrata are the major celebrations in Bharmour region.

In Rajasthan, the Bhil religious practices are not entirely dissimilar to those of other communities. They worship, for instance, Hanuman, Mahadev and Rishabdev. They also worship the moon and some sacrificial offerings of animals to the female Goddesses like Kali are prevalent even today. Trees like tamarind, pipal (ficus), mango, etc. are revered by them. There are several deities they worship who are supposed to support their harvest or animals – names such as Nandarkho, Hirnayakulyon, Mantyo Dev, Mawli, Gwal Dev, etc. They also keep their lost ones in mind through the practice of tribal Ramna.

In Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas of Karnataka and Kerala – near the Nilgiris, a salt giving ceremony to buffaloes is celebrated by the Toda Tribe. The salt is given to the buffaloes five times a year. Some tribal customs reflect their emergence from remote forests to agro-pastoralism – Puthari is a joyous harvest festival celebrated among Betta Kurumbas and some other communities across South India. It is celebrated in the Malayalam month of Thula (late October) after the paddy harvest.

Meaning of the word ‘Puthari’ is new rice, and this is equivalent to the Navakhai festival in parts of Odissa. At this time rice is just harvested and is brought by village leader to the temple from the field and kept there, and after worshiping they then take back the rice to their houses. The festival symbolizes the solemn beginning of the use of new rice from freshly conducted harvest season for offering in the temple. As a tradition young men clean their bow and arrows and take training on it. A sweet pudding made with rice, coconut and country sugar is prepared for offering to the gods on the auspicious occasion. Later this sweet is bound in small bunches and handed over to all those present in the fair. Folk culture of Kurumbas can be witnessed during Puthari as conventional songs are sung and different folk dances are performed.

There are some tribes who are more ubiquitous than others, with regional and local offshoots. For instance, the Gonds are scheduled tribes of Madhya Pradesh who live in Mandla, Chhindwara, Betul and Seoni districts of the state. Their many regional offshoots exist in other Central Indian states like Maharashtra, Chhatisgarh, Odisha and parts of Andhra Pradesh. The Gonds could have got their name from Khond, which means hill, or from Koh, which means cave, hence the names – Gond, Khond, Kond, Rajgond, Koitur, Khond, Khand. The Gond folk tradition is rich in art and craft and they are very fond of music and dance. Both men and women sing and dance to the energetic sound of instruments like the dholak, a double sided drum.

The Pardhan tribe is the official narrators of traditional folk stories for this community and they tattoo their bodies with stars, scorpions, flower, bird and animal patterns. The walls of their homes are painted with scenes inspired by nature – animals, birds, people and trees. These are drawn in red and black on a white background. They make colorful floor designs called rangoli and beautiful pottery, baskets and other crafts, woodcarving is another talent.

Like many other tribes, Gonds worship Baradeo who is also known as Shambu Mahadeo and Persa Pen. In imagery he is a lot like Shiva, and is usually with something between a spear and a trident. Baradeo oversees activities of lesser gods and is respected, but he does not receive fervent devotion, which is shown only to clan deities. Each Gond clan has its Persa Pen, who protects all clan members. The Persa Pen is essentially good but can be dangerous and violent. Many Gonds believe that when a pardhan (bard) plays his fiddle, the deity’s fierce powers can be controlled. Each village has its village-guardian and village-mother that are worshipped when villagers celebrate regular festivities. Gonds also worship family and household gods, gods of the field and gods of cattle.

Deities such as Shitala Mata, goddess of smallpox, help ward off disease. Spirits are also believed to inhabit hills, rivers, lakes and trees. Village priests (devari) perform sacrifices and rituals for village festivals and the head of a household typically carries out family ceremonies. Clan priests (katora) tend the shrine and ritual objects of the clan’s Persa Pen. These priests also guard the sacred spear point and organize annual festivals. Most aspects of Gond life, from the greatest festivals to the building of a new cattle shed, are accompanied by sacrifice. Certain deities, especially the female ones demand chickens, goats and sometimes-male buffaloes. Every nine or twelve years, Gonds sacrifice a pig to the god Narayan Deo in an important ceremony known as the Laru Kaj (pig’s wedding). Other rituals also involve offerings of fruits, coconuts, flowers, colored powder and strings.

The majority of Gonds are Hindu. Some are animists, who believe that things in nature – trees, mountains and the sky have souls or consciousness and that a supernatural force animates the universe. They believe that their gods inhabit the forest and ancestor worship is an integral part of their religion. The villagers worship the village gods as a group and a priest conducts the rites. Idols of gods are often spear shaped, made of iron and are smeared with vermillion powder and kept at a special place called Deo-Khulla, the threshing floor of the gods. The Gond people were known to offer human sacrifices, especially to the goddesses Kali, Danteshwari and Bara Deo. This practice was abolished by the British in the late19th century but ritual of animal sacrifices are still preformed surreptitiously.

In the South, when a death occurs in the Kurumbas, the heads of males are shaved by the jatti. Both males and females dance to music and around the cot upon which the deceased rests. After all those who should attend have arrived, the corpse is carried to the burial ground. Members of the deceased brother-in-law’s patrician bear the prime responsibility for digging the grave, but the Kurumba present also assists. When all is ready, the body is placed in the grave so that it faces toward the north. The local Inula priest then gazes at a lamp and goes into a trance. A member of the bereaved family asks him if the death was natural or the result of sorcery. If natural, the grave is filled in the right way and if sorcery was the cause of death, elaborate ritual is performed. All the mourners then leave and the highlight in the ending of the seven days is the distribution of new clothing by the Kurumba to these relatives. As soon as possible after the funeral, preferably within a month, a stone is placed in the ancestral temple to give the deceased a place to stay. After pouring a little oil on the stone as part of a prayer ritual and leaving food and drink for the spirit of the departed, the relatives leave.

Once a year, all those who had a relative who died within the year participate in a final ceremony. At the nearby river or stream, rice gruel is poured over cloth, which is set adrift. In addition to honoring the spirits of those who died within the year, the Irula thereby honor all the ancestral spirits of the related patricians.

In some form or the other, the sacred grove as a point of worship is intrinsic to most tribal communities. Thus, for instance, in Odisha, sarna means grove and it usually denotes the sal tree, sacred to the religion, from which also derives sari dhorom or the religion of the sal tree. A large population of the Santhal and Mundas practice

Sarnaism, and worship Dharmesh, the God as the creator of the universe. Sarna temples are called Sarnasthal and can be found in villages, while worship can be performed in sacred groves where the entire community congregates and sings collectively. The ceremonies are usually performed with the active participation of village priests and their assistants.

In conclusion, it can be clearly maintained that the tribes are the simplest and most self-effacing amongst all our communities and have a unique culture and identity. There is a lot to learn from them – especially their frugality and devotion to nature. This makes them everlasting sentinels of sustainability for the planet.

Religion and magic are also the integral part of the tribal culture. Most of the tribes of central India are animist in nature. Besides, the worship of ancestral sprit is also in practice. Superstition and traditional beliefs are deeply rooted with their religious practices. It is a general belief among all the tribes of central India that everything what ever happening to them are either by the blessing or curse of the supernatural power or evil sprits. They used to worship their surrounding nature, hills, mountains, rivers and streams, trees, agricultural fields, animals etc as a deity for various purposes, like curing from diseases, protection from natural calamities and wild animals, prosperous life, good cultivation etc. Most of their rituals and worships are related either to their economy or to their daily life. Usually, the family or clan deities are worshipped by the head of the family or clan members but for the village level or tribe level worship they seek help of their Ojha or religious head. The service of witch doctor is rendered for curing from black magic. They never took the services of the Brahmins in any religious activities. There is a hierarchy found among the deities in most of the central Indian tribe.

For example, the deities of the Gond tribe. There are nine distinct groups of gods found among the Gonds. The Bada Deo or Maha-Dev (Pen) who is conventionally thought to be Shiva of the Hindu traditions is considered as the principal god of the Gond. Similarly, the Singhbonga (the Sun God) is the principal deity of the Santals, the Mundas and the Hos. Other deities of this tribe are Jahir era, Monika, Marangburu etc. The Juangs of Odisha believe in the supernatural power. The ‘Dharm deuta’ (sun god) is their supreme deity and the ‘Basuki mata’ (earth goddess) is his counterpart. In every ritual, the Juangs worship them. Tlrre ‘Rusi and, ‘Rusiani’ are considered as their mythical ancestors and remembered in each occasion.

Most of the tribes of Chotanagpur and its neighbouring areas believe in Sarna religion. The word Sarna is derived from the word Sar (arrow). The worship place of the tribes of Chotanagpur is known as Sarnasthal or Jahera which is nothing but a sacred grove, where a set of old Sarjom (Sal) trees exist. This Sarnasthal is usually, but not necessarily, present at a little distance of the village. In his first monumental work “Munda and their Country”, Rai Bahadur S.C. Roy (1912) has mentioned that “Although the greater portion of the primeval forest, in clearings of which the Munda villages were originally established, have since disappeared under the axe or under the jara-fire, many a Munda village still retain a portion or portions of the original forest to serve as Sarnas or sacred groves. In some Mundari villages, only a small clump of ancient trees now represent the original forest and serves as the village-Sarna. These sarnas are the only temples the Mundas know. Here the village- gods reside, and are periodically worshipped and propitiated with sacrifices”. To describe Sarna religion, Dalton and Dehon have mentioned that it is composite in nature but as per Roy (1918:1) it is an organized system of spiritism set on a background of vague animism, which institutionally recognizes the deities and ancestral spirits.

But now-a-days, because of the impact of various agencies, like Christianity, Hinduisation, globalization, Industrialization etc some of the tribal people are bending towards the other religion of wonder pantheon. Some of them have completely assimilated with their new religion and some are partly adopted the new religious traits and parallel following both the religions. Because of this syncretism, they are only worshipping few traditional deities. For example, some of the Hos, the Mundas, the Santals, the Gonds who are partly Hinduized and worshipping their traditional deities as also worshipping the Hindu deities. It is same in the case of those tribals of central India those who have partly adopted Christianity.